First Part — How Is Pure Mathematics Possible?
HOW IS PURE MATHEMATICS POSSIBLE?
§6Here is a great and established branch of knowledge, encompassing even now a wonderfully large domain and promising an unlimited extension in the future. Yet it carries with it thoroughly apodeictical certainty, i.e., absolute necessity, which therefore rests upon no empirical grounds. Consequently it is a pure product of reason, and moreover is thoroughly synthetical. [Here the question arises:]
"How then is it possible for human reason to produce a cognition of this nature entirely a priori?"
Does not this faculty [which produces mathematics], as it neither is nor can be based upon experience, presuppose some ground of cognition a priori, which lies deeply hidden, but which might reveal itself by these its effects, if their first beginnings were but diligently ferreted out?
§7But we find that all mathematical cognition has this peculiarity: it must first exhibit its concept in a visual form (Anschauung) and indeed a priori, therefore in a visual form which is not empirical, but pure. Without this mathematics cannot take a single step; hence its judgments are always visual, viz., "intuitive"; whereas philosophy must be satisfied with discursive judgments from mere concepts, and though it may illustrate its doctrines through a visual figure, can never derive them from it. This observation on the nature of mathematics gives us a clue to the first and highest condition of its possibility, which is, that some non-sensuous visualisation (called pure intuition, or reine Anschauung) must form its basis, in which all its concepts can be exhibited or constructed, in concreto and yet a priori. If we can find out this pure intuition and its possibility, we may thence easily explain how synthetical propositions a priori are possible in pure mathematics, and consequently how this science itself is possible. Empirical intuition [viz., sense-perception] enables us without difficulty to enlarge the concept which we frame of an object of intuition [or sense-perception], by new predicates, which intuition [i.e., sense-perception] itself presents synthetically in experience. Pure intuition [viz., the visualisation of forms in our imagination, from which every thing sensual, i.e., every thought of material qualities, is excluded] does so likewise, only with this difference, that in the latter case the synthetical judgment is a priori certain and apodeictical, in the former, only a posteriori and empirically certain; because this latter contains only that which occurs in contingent empirical intuition, but the former, that which must necessarily be discovered in pure intuition. Here intuition, being an intuition a priori, is before all experience, viz., before any perception of particular objects, inseparably conjoined with its concept.
§8But with this step our perplexity seems rather to increase than to lessen. For the question now is, "How is it possible to intuite [in a visual form] anything a priori?" An intuition [viz., a visual sense-perception] is such a representation as immediately depends upon the presence of the object. Hence it seems impossible to intuite from the outset a priori, because intuition would in that event take place without either a former or a present object to refer to, and by consequence could not be intuition. Concepts indeed are such, that we can easily form some of them a priori, viz., such as contain nothing but the thought of an object in general; and we need not find ourselves in an immediate relation to the object. Take, for instance, the concepts of Quantity, of Cause, etc. But even these require, in order to make them under stood, a certain concrete use—that is, an application to some sense-experience (Anschauung), by which an object of them is given us. But how can the intuition of the object [its visualisation] precede the object itself?
§9If our intuition [i.e., our sense-experience] were perforce of such a nature as to represent things as they are in themselves, there would not be any intuition a priori, but intuition would be always empirical. For I can only know what is contained in the object in itself when it is present and given to me. It is indeed even then incomprehensible how the visualising (Anschauung) of a present thing should make me know this thing as it is in itself, as its properties cannot migrate into my faculty of representation. But even granting this possibility, a visualising of that sort would not take place a priori, that is, before the object were presented to me; for without this latter fact no reason of a relation between my representation and the object can be imagined, unless it depend upon a direct inspiration.
Therefore in one way only can my intuition (Anschauung) anticipate the actuality of the object, and be a cognition a priori, viz.: if my intuition contains nothing but the form of sensibility, antedating in my subjectivity all the actual impressions through which I am affected by objects.
For that objects of sense can only be intuited according to this form of sensibility I can know a priori. Hence it follows: that propositions, which concern this form of sensuous intuition only, are possible and valid for objects of the senses; as also, conversely, that intuitions which are possible a priori can never concern any other things than objects of our senses.{10}
=================================== {10} This whole paragraph (§ 9) will be better understood when compared with Remark I., following this section, appearing in the present edition on page 40.—Ed. ===================================
§10Accordingly, it is only the form of the sensuous intuition by which we can intuite things a priori, but by which we can know objects only as they appear to us (to our senses), not as they are in themselves; and this assumption is absolutely necessary if synthetical propositions a priori be granted as possible, or if, in case they actually occur, their possibility is to be comprehended and determined beforehand.
Now, the intuitions which pure mathematics lays at the foundation of all its cognitions and judgments which appear at once apodeictic and necessary are Space and Time. For mathematics must first have all its concepts in intuition, and pure mathematics in pure intuition, that is, it must construct them. If it proceeded in any other way, it would be impossible to make any headway, for mathematics proceeds, not analytically by dissection of concepts, but synthetically, and if pure intuition be wanting, there is nothing in which the matter for synthetical judgments a priori can be given. Geometry is based upon the pure intuition of space. Arithmetic accomplishes its concept of number by the successive addition of units in time; and pure mechanics especially cannot attain its concepts of motion without employing the representation of time. Both representations, however, are only intuitions; for if we omit from the empirical intuitions of bodies and their alterations (motion) everything empirical, or belonging to sensation, space and time still remain, which are therefore pure intuitions that lie a priori at the basis of the empirical. Hence they can never be omitted, but at the same time, by their being pure intuitions a priori, they prove that they are mere forms of our sensibility, which must precede all empirical intuition, or perception of actual objects, and conformably to which objects can be known a priori, but only as they appear to us.
§11The problem of the present section is therefore solved. Pure mathematics, as synthetical cognition a priori, is only possible by referring to no other objects than those of the senses. At the basis of their empirical intuition lies a pure intuition (of space and of time) which is a priori. This is possible, because the latter intuition is nothing but the mere form of sensibility, which precedes the actual appearance of the objects, in that it, in fact, makes them possible. Yet this faculty of intuiting a priori affects not the matter of the phenomenon (that is, the sense-element in it, for this constitutes that which is empirical), but its form, viz., space and time. Should any man venture to doubt that these are determinations adhering not to things in themselves, but to their relation to our sensibility, I should be glad to know how it can be possible to know the constitution of things a priori, viz., before we have any acquaintance with them and before they are presented to us. Such, however, is the case with space and time. But this is quite comprehensible as soon as both count for nothing more than formal conditions of our sensibility, while the objects count merely as phenomena; for then the form of the phenomenon, i.e., pure intuition, can by all means be represented as proceeding from ourselves, that is, a priori.
§12In order to add something by way of illustration and confirmation, we need only watch the ordinary and necessary procedure of geometers. All proofs of the complete congruence of two given figures (where the one can in every respect be substituted for the other) come ultimately to this that they may be made to coincide; which is evidently nothing else than a synthetical proposition resting upon immediate intuition, and this intuition must be pure, or given a priori, otherwise the proposition could not rank as apodeictically certain, but would have empirical certainty only. In that case, it could only be said that it is always found to be so, and holds good only as far as our perception reaches. That everywhere space (which [in its entirety] is itself no longer the boundary of another space) has three dimensions, and that space cannot in any way have more, is based on the proposition that not more than three lines can intersect at right angles in one point; but this proposition cannot by any means be shown from concepts, but rests immediately on intuition, and indeed on pure and a priori intuition, because it is apodeictically certain. That we can require a line to be drawn to infinity (in indefinitum), or that a series of changes (for example, spaces traversed by motion) shall be infinitely continued, presupposes a representation of space and time, which can only attach to intuition, namely, so far as it in itself is bounded by nothing, for from concepts it could never be inferred. Consequently, the basis of mathematics actually are pure intuitions, which make its synthetical and apodeictically valid propositions possible. Hence our transcendental deduction of the notions of space and of time explains at the same time the possibility of pure mathematics. Without some such deduction its truth may be granted, but its existence could by no means be understood, and we must assume "that everything which can be given to our senses (to the external senses in space, to the internal one in time) is intuited by us as it appears to us, not as it is in itself."
First Part — How Is Pure Mathematics Possible?
HOW IS PURE MATHEMATICS POSSIBLE?
Here is a great and established branch of knowledge, encompassing even now a wonderfully large domain and promising an unlimited extension in the future. Yet it carries with it thoroughly apodeictical certainty, i.e., absolute necessity, which therefore rests upon no empirical grounds. Consequently it is a pure product of reason, and moreover is thoroughly synthetical. [Here the question arises:]
"How then is it possible for human reason to produce a cognition of this nature entirely a priori?"
Does not this faculty [which produces mathematics], as it neither is nor can be based upon experience, presuppose some ground of cognition a priori, which lies deeply hidden, but which might reveal itself by these its effects, if their first beginnings were but diligently ferreted out?
Hier ist nun eine große und bewährte Erkenntnis, die schon jetzt von bewundernswürdigem Umfange ist, und unbegrenzte Ausbreitung auf die Zukunft verspricht, die durch und durch apodiktische Gewißheit, d.i. absolute Notwendigkeit, bei sich führet, also auf keinen Erfahrungsgründen beruht, mithin ein reines Produkt der Vernunft, überdem aber durch und durch synthetisch ist; »wie ist es nun der menschlichen Vernunft möglich, eine solche Erkenntnis gänzlich a priori zu Stande zu bringen?« Setzt dieses Vermögen, da es sich nicht auf Erfahrungen fußt, noch fußen kann, nicht irgend einen Erkenntnisgrund a priori voraus, der tief verborgen liegt, der sich aber durch diese seine Wirkungen offenbaren dürfte, wenn man den ersten Anfängen derselben nur fleißig nachspürete?
But we find that all mathematical cognition has this peculiarity: it must first exhibit its concept in a visual form (Anschauung) and indeed a priori, therefore in a visual form which is not empirical, but pure. Without this mathematics cannot take a single step; hence its judgments are always visual, viz., "intuitive"; whereas philosophy must be satisfied with discursive judgments from mere concepts, and though it may illustrate its doctrines through a visual figure, can never derive them from it. This observation on the nature of mathematics gives us a clue to the first and highest condition of its possibility, which is, that some non-sensuous visualisation (called pure intuition, or reine Anschauung) must form its basis, in which all its concepts can be exhibited or constructed, in concreto and yet a priori. If we can find out this pure intuition and its possibility, we may thence easily explain how synthetical propositions a priori are possible in pure mathematics, and consequently how this science itself is possible. Empirical intuition [viz., sense-perception] enables us without difficulty to enlarge the concept which we frame of an object of intuition [or sense-perception], by new predicates, which intuition [i.e., sense-perception] itself presents synthetically in experience. Pure intuition [viz., the visualisation of forms in our imagination, from which every thing sensual, i.e., every thought of material qualities, is excluded] does so likewise, only with this difference, that in the latter case the synthetical judgment is a priori certain and apodeictical, in the former, only a posteriori and empirically certain; because this latter contains only that which occurs in contingent empirical intuition, but the former, that which must necessarily be discovered in pure intuition. Here intuition, being an intuition a priori, is before all experience, viz., before any perception of particular objects, inseparably conjoined with its concept.
Wir finden aber, daß alle mathematische Erkenntnis dieses Eigentümliche habe, daß sie ihren Begriff vorherin der Anschauung, und zwar a priori, mithin einer solchen, die nicht empirisch, sondern reine Anschauung ist, darstellen müsse, ohne welches Mittel sie nicht einen einzigen Schritt tun kann; daher ihre Urteile jederzeitintuitivsind, an statt daß Philosophie sich mitdiskursivenUrteilenaus bloßen Begriffenbegnügen, und ihre apodiktische Lehren wohl durch Anschauung erläutern, niemals aber daher ableiten kann. Diese Beobachtung in Ansehung der Natur der Mathematik gibt uns nun schon eine Leitung auf die erste und oberste Bedingung ihrer Möglichkeit: nämlich, es muß ihr irgendeine reine Anschauungzum Grunde liegen, in welcher sie alle ihre Begriffe in concreto, und dennoch a priori darstellen, oder, wie man es nennt, siekonstruierenkann.4 Können wir diese reine Anschauung, und die Möglichkeit einer solchen ausfinden, so erklärt sich daraus leicht, wie synthetische Sätze a priori in der reinen Mathematik, und mithin auch, wie diese Wissenschaft selbst möglich sei; denn, so wie die empirische Anschauung es ohne Schwierigkeit möglich macht, daß wir unseren Begriff, den wir uns von einem Objekt der Anschauung machen, durch neue Prädikate, die die Anschauung selbst darbietet, in der Erfahrung synthetisch erweitern, so wird es auch die reine Anschauung tun, nur mit dem Unterschiede: daß im letztern Falle das synthetische Urteil a priori gewiß und apodiktisch, im ersteren aber nur a posteriori und empirisch gewiß sein wird, weil diese nur das enthält, was in der zufälligen empirischen Anschauung angetroffen wird, jene aber, was in der reinen notwendig angetroffen werden muß, indem sie, als Anschauung a priori, mit dem Begriffevor aller Erfahrungoder einzelnen Wahrnehmung unzertrennlich verbunden ist.
But with this step our perplexity seems rather to increase than to lessen. For the question now is, "How is it possible to intuite [in a visual form] anything a priori?" An intuition [viz., a visual sense-perception] is such a representation as immediately depends upon the presence of the object. Hence it seems impossible to intuite from the outset a priori, because intuition would in that event take place without either a former or a present object to refer to, and by consequence could not be intuition. Concepts indeed are such, that we can easily form some of them a priori, viz., such as contain nothing but the thought of an object in general; and we need not find ourselves in an immediate relation to the object. Take, for instance, the concepts of Quantity, of Cause, etc. But even these require, in order to make them under stood, a certain concrete use—that is, an application to some sense-experience (Anschauung), by which an object of them is given us. But how can the intuition of the object [its visualisation] precede the object itself?
Allein die Schwierigkeit scheint bei diesem Schritte eher zu wachsen, als abzunehmen. Denn nunmehro lautet die Frage:wie ist es möglich, etwas a priori anzuschauen? Anschauung ist eine Vorstellung, so wie sie unmittelbar von der Gegenwart des Gegenstandes abhängen würde. Daher scheinet es unmöglich, a prioriursprünglichanzuschauen, weil die Anschauung alsdenn ohne einen weder vorher, noch jetzt gegenwärtigen Gegenstand, worauf sie sich bezöge, stattfinden müßte, und also nicht Anschauung sein könnte. Begriffe sind zwar von der Art, daß wir uns einige derselben, nämlich die, so nur das Denken eines Gegenstandes überhaupt enthalten, ganz wohl a priori machen können, ohne daß wir uns in einem unmittelbaren Verhältnisse zum Gegenstande befänden, z.B. den Begriff von Größe, von Ursach etc.; aber selbst diese bedürfen doch, um ihnen Bedeutung und Sinn zu verschaffen, einen gewissen Gebrauch in concreto, d.i. Anwendung auf irgend eine Anschauung, dadurch uns ein Gegenstand derselben gegeben wird. Allein wie kannAnschauungdes Gegenstandes vor dem Gegenstande selbst vorhergehen?
If our intuition [i.e., our sense-experience] were perforce of such a nature as to represent things as they are in themselves, there would not be any intuition a priori, but intuition would be always empirical. For I can only know what is contained in the object in itself when it is present and given to me. It is indeed even then incomprehensible how the visualising (Anschauung) of a present thing should make me know this thing as it is in itself, as its properties cannot migrate into my faculty of representation. But even granting this possibility, a visualising of that sort would not take place a priori, that is, before the object were presented to me; for without this latter fact no reason of a relation between my representation and the object can be imagined, unless it depend upon a direct inspiration.
Therefore in one way only can my intuition (Anschauung) anticipate the actuality of the object, and be a cognition a priori, viz.: if my intuition contains nothing but the form of sensibility, antedating in my subjectivity all the actual impressions through which I am affected by objects.
For that objects of sense can only be intuited according to this form of sensibility I can know a priori. Hence it follows: that propositions, which concern this form of sensuous intuition only, are possible and valid for objects of the senses; as also, conversely, that intuitions which are possible a priori can never concern any other things than objects of our senses.{10}
=================================== {10} This whole paragraph (§ 9) will be better understood when compared with Remark I., following this section, appearing in the present edition on page 40.—Ed. ===================================
Müßte unsre Anschauung von der Art sein, daß sie Dinge vorstellte,so wie sie an sich selbst sind, so würde gar keine Anschauung a priori stattfinden, sondern sie wäre allemal empirisch. Denn was in dem Gegenstande an sich selbst enthalten sei, kann ich nur wissen, wenn er mir gegenwärtig und gegeben ist. Freilich ist es auch alsdenn unbegreiflich, wie die Anschauung einer gegenwärtigen Sache mir diese sollte zu erkennen geben, wie sie an sich ist, da ihre Eigenschaften nicht in meine Vorstellungskraft hinüber wandern können; allein die Möglichkeit davon eingeräumt, so würde doch dergleichen Anschauung nicht a priori stattfinden, d.i. ehe mir noch der Gegenstand vorgestellt würde: denn ohne das kann kein Grund der Beziehung meiner Vorstellung auf ihn erdacht werden, sie müßte denn auf Eingebung beruhen. Es ist also nur auf eine einzige Art möglich, daß meine Anschauung vor der Wirklichkeit des Gegenstandes vorhergehe, und als Erkenntnis a priori stattfinde,wenn sie nämlich nichts anders enthält, als die Form der Sinnlichkeit, die in meinem Subjekt vor allen wirklichen Eindrücken vorhergeht, dadurch ich von Gegenständen affiziert werde. Denn daß Gegenstände der Sinne dieser Form der Sinnlichkeit gemäß allein angeschaut werden können, kann ich a priori wissen. Hieraus folgt: daß Sätze, die bloß diese Form der sinnlichen Anschauung betreffen, von Gegenständen der Sinne möglich und gültig sein werden, imgleichen umgekehrt, daß Anschauungen, die a priori möglich sein, niemals andere Dinge, als Gegenstände unsrer Sinne betreffen können.
Accordingly, it is only the form of the sensuous intuition by which we can intuite things a priori, but by which we can know objects only as they appear to us (to our senses), not as they are in themselves; and this assumption is absolutely necessary if synthetical propositions a priori be granted as possible, or if, in case they actually occur, their possibility is to be comprehended and determined beforehand.
Now, the intuitions which pure mathematics lays at the foundation of all its cognitions and judgments which appear at once apodeictic and necessary are Space and Time. For mathematics must first have all its concepts in intuition, and pure mathematics in pure intuition, that is, it must construct them. If it proceeded in any other way, it would be impossible to make any headway, for mathematics proceeds, not analytically by dissection of concepts, but synthetically, and if pure intuition be wanting, there is nothing in which the matter for synthetical judgments a priori can be given. Geometry is based upon the pure intuition of space. Arithmetic accomplishes its concept of number by the successive addition of units in time; and pure mechanics especially cannot attain its concepts of motion without employing the representation of time. Both representations, however, are only intuitions; for if we omit from the empirical intuitions of bodies and their alterations (motion) everything empirical, or belonging to sensation, space and time still remain, which are therefore pure intuitions that lie a priori at the basis of the empirical. Hence they can never be omitted, but at the same time, by their being pure intuitions a priori, they prove that they are mere forms of our sensibility, which must precede all empirical intuition, or perception of actual objects, and conformably to which objects can be known a priori, but only as they appear to us.
Also ist es nur die Form der sinnlichen Anschauung, dadurch wir a priori Dinge anschauen können, wodurch wir aber auch die Objekte nur erkennen, wie sie uns (unsern Sinnen)erscheinenkönnen, nicht wie sie an sich sein mögen, und diese Voraussetzung ist schlechterdings notwendig, wenn synthetische Sätze a priori als möglich eingeräumt, oder, im Falle sie wirklich angetroffen werden, ihre Möglichkeit begriffen und zum voraus bestimmt werden soll.
Nun sind Raum und Zeit diejenigen Anschauungen, welche die reine Mathematik allen ihren Erkenntnissen, und Urteilen, die zugleich als apodiktisch und notwendig auftreten, zum Grunde legt; denn Mathematik muß alle ihre Begriffe zuerst in der Anschauung, und reine Mathematik in der reinen Anschauung darstellen, d.i. sie konstruieren, ohne welche (weil sie nicht analytisch, nämlich durch Zergliederung der Begriffe, sondern synthetisch verfahren kann) es ihr unmöglich ist, einen Schritt zu tun, so lange ihr nämlich reine Anschauung fehlt, in der allein der Stoff zu synthetischen Urteilen a priori gegeben werden kann. Geometrie legt die reine Anschauung des Raums zum Grunde. Arithmetik bringt selbst ihre Zahlbegriffe durch sukzessive Hinzusetzung der Einheiten in der Zeit zu Stande, vornehmlich aber reine Mechanik kann ihre Begriffe von Bewegung nur vermittelst der Vorstellung der Zeit zu Stande bringen. Beide Vorstellungen aber sind bloß Anschauungen, denn wenn man von den empirischen Anschauungen der Körper und ihrer Veränderungen (Bewegung) alles Empirische, nämlich was zur Empfindung gehört, wegläßt, so bleiben noch Raum und Zeit übrig, welche also reine Anschauungen sind, die jenen a priori zum Grunde liegen, und daher selbst niemals weggelassen werden können, aber eben dadurch, daß sie reine Anschauungen a priori sind, beweisen, daß sie bloße Formen unserer Sinnlichkeit sind, die vor aller empirischen Anschauung, d.i. der Wahrnehmung wirklicher Gegenstände, vorhergehen müssen, und denen gemäß Gegenstände a priori erkannt werden können, aber freilich nur, wie sie uns erscheinen.
The problem of the present section is therefore solved. Pure mathematics, as synthetical cognition a priori, is only possible by referring to no other objects than those of the senses. At the basis of their empirical intuition lies a pure intuition (of space and of time) which is a priori. This is possible, because the latter intuition is nothing but the mere form of sensibility, which precedes the actual appearance of the objects, in that it, in fact, makes them possible. Yet this faculty of intuiting a priori affects not the matter of the phenomenon (that is, the sense-element in it, for this constitutes that which is empirical), but its form, viz., space and time. Should any man venture to doubt that these are determinations adhering not to things in themselves, but to their relation to our sensibility, I should be glad to know how it can be possible to know the constitution of things a priori, viz., before we have any acquaintance with them and before they are presented to us. Such, however, is the case with space and time. But this is quite comprehensible as soon as both count for nothing more than formal conditions of our sensibility, while the objects count merely as phenomena; for then the form of the phenomenon, i.e., pure intuition, can by all means be represented as proceeding from ourselves, that is, a priori.
Die Aufgabe des gegenwärtigen Abschnitts ist also aufgelöset. Reine Mathematik ist, als synthetische Erkenntnis a priori, nur dadurch möglich, daß sie auf keine andere als bloße Gegenstände der Sinne geht, deren empirischer Anschauung eine reine Anschauung (des Raums und der Zeit) und zwar a priori zum Grunde liegt, und darum zum Grunde liegen kann, weil diese nichts anders als die bloße Form der Sinnlichkeit ist, welche vor der wirklichen Erscheinung der Gegenstände vorhergeht, indem sie dieselbe in der Tat allererst möglich macht. Doch betrifft dieses Vermögen, a priori anzuschauen, nicht die Materie der Erscheinung, d.i. das, was in ihr Empfindung ist, denn diese macht das Empirische aus, sondern nur die Form derselben, Raum und Zeit. Wollte man im mindesten daran zweifeln, daß beide gar keine den Dingen an sich selbst, sondern nur bloße ihrem Verhältnisse zur Sinnlichkeit anhängende Bestimmungen sein, so möchte ich gerne wissen, wie man es möglich finden kann, a priori, und also vor aller Bekanntschaft mit den Dingen, ehe sie nämlich uns gegeben sind, zu wissen, wie ihre Anschauung beschaffen sein müsse, welches doch hier der Fall mit Raum und Zeit ist. Dieses ist aber ganz begreiflich, so bald beide vor nichts weiter, als formale Bedingungen unserer Sinnlichkeit, die Gegenstände aber bloß vor Erscheinungen gelten, denn alsdenn kann die Form der Erscheinung, d.i. die reine Anschauung allerdings aus uns selbst, d.i. a priori vorgestellt werden.
In order to add something by way of illustration and confirmation, we need only watch the ordinary and necessary procedure of geometers. All proofs of the complete congruence of two given figures (where the one can in every respect be substituted for the other) come ultimately to this that they may be made to coincide; which is evidently nothing else than a synthetical proposition resting upon immediate intuition, and this intuition must be pure, or given a priori, otherwise the proposition could not rank as apodeictically certain, but would have empirical certainty only. In that case, it could only be said that it is always found to be so, and holds good only as far as our perception reaches. That everywhere space (which [in its entirety] is itself no longer the boundary of another space) has three dimensions, and that space cannot in any way have more, is based on the proposition that not more than three lines can intersect at right angles in one point; but this proposition cannot by any means be shown from concepts, but rests immediately on intuition, and indeed on pure and a priori intuition, because it is apodeictically certain. That we can require a line to be drawn to infinity (in indefinitum), or that a series of changes (for example, spaces traversed by motion) shall be infinitely continued, presupposes a representation of space and time, which can only attach to intuition, namely, so far as it in itself is bounded by nothing, for from concepts it could never be inferred. Consequently, the basis of mathematics actually are pure intuitions, which make its synthetical and apodeictically valid propositions possible. Hence our transcendental deduction of the notions of space and of time explains at the same time the possibility of pure mathematics. Without some such deduction its truth may be granted, but its existence could by no means be understood, and we must assume "that everything which can be given to our senses (to the external senses in space, to the internal one in time) is intuited by us as it appears to us, not as it is in itself."
Um etwas zur Erläuterung und Bestätigung beizufügen, darf man nur das gewöhnliche und unumgänglich notwendige Verfahren der Geometern ansehen. Alle Beweise von durchgängiger Gleichheit zweier gegebenen Figuren (da eine in allen Stücken an die Stelle der andern gesetzt werden kann) laufen zuletzt darauf hinaus, daß sie einander decken; welches offenbar nichts anders, als ein auf der unmittelbaren Anschauung beruhender synthetischer Satz ist, und diese Anschauung muß rein und a priori gegeben werden, denn sonst könnte jener Satz nicht vor apodiktisch gewiß gelten, sondern hätte nur empirische Gewißheit. Es würde nur heißen: man bemerkt es jederzeit so, und er gilt nur so weit, als unsre Wahrnehmung bis dahin sich erstreckt hat. Daß der vollständige Raum (der selbst keine Grenze eines anderen Raumes mehr ist) drei Abmessungen habe, und Raum überhaupt auch nicht mehr derselben haben könne, wird auf den Satz gebaut, daß sich in einem Punkte nicht mehr als drei Linien rechtwinklicht schneiden können; dieser Satz aber kann gar nicht aus Begriffen dargetan werden, sondern beruht unmittelbar auf Anschauung, und zwar reiner a priori, weil er apodiktisch gewiß ist; daß man verlangen kann, eine Linie solle ins Unendliche gezogen (in indefinitum), oder eine Reihe Veränderungen (z.B. durch Bewegung zurückgelegte Räume) solle ins Unendliche fortgesetzt werden, setzt doch eine Vorstellung des Raumes und der Zeit voraus, die bloß an der Anschauung hängen kann, nämlich so fern sie an sich durch nichts begrenzt ist; denn aus Begriffen könnte sie nie geschlossen werden. Also liegen doch wirklich der Mathematik reine Anschauungen a priori zum Grunde, welche ihre synthetische und apodiktisch geltende Sätze möglich machen, und daher erklärt unsere transzendentale Deduktion der Begriffe im Raum und Zeit zugleich die Möglichkeit einer reinen Mathematik, die, ohne eine solche Deduktion, und, ohne daß wir annehmen, »alles, was unsern Sinnen gegeben werden mag (den äußeren im Raume, dem inneren in der Zeit), werde von uns nur angeschauet, wie es uns erscheinet, nicht wie es an sich selbst ist«, zwar eingeräumt, aber keinesweges eingesehen werden könnte.
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